Dwarka: The Confluence of an Epic and Historical Evidence

Dwarka: The City of Many Layers

At the westernmost tip of India’s Saurashtra peninsula, where the Gomti River meets the Arabian Sea, lies the city of Dwarka. Here, the air is thick with the scent of salt and incense, and the sound of temple bells from the towering Dwarkadhish Temple blends with the ceaseless roar of the ocean.¹ Dwarka is more than a geographical location; it is a concept, a sacred space where the divine is believed to have once walked the earth, a glorious kingdom lost to the waves, and today, a living, breathing centre of faith that draws millions of pilgrims.³

The city’s very name, derived from the Sanskrit word dvar, meaning ‘door’ or ‘gate’, serves as a powerful metaphor for its multifaceted identity.³ It is revered as a gateway to spiritual liberation (moksha), one of the seven most ancient holy cities (Sapta Puri) and one of the four cardinal pilgrimage sites (Char Dham) in Hinduism.⁶ Historically, its location suggests it was a gateway for maritime trade, connecting India to the Arabian world.³ Most profoundly, it is a gateway into India’s deepest past, a unique intersection where itihasa (epic narrative), geography, and modern archaeology converge.¹⁰ This report seeks to explore the enduring legend of Dwarka, tracing its story from the opulent descriptions in sacred texts to the tantalizing discoveries made by scientists in the depths of the sea, asking a central question: Where does the line between myth and history blur, and how has the modern search for a submerged city reshaped our understanding of ancient Indian civilization?.⁴

The Golden City of Sacred Lore

The story of Dwarka begins not with creation, but with a strategic retreat. It is a narrative that elevates its protagonist, Lord Krishna, from a divine hero to a shrewd statesman and a compassionate protector of his people.¹³

The Divine Mandate for a New Kingdom

According to sacred texts like the Mahabharata and the Shrimad Bhagavatam, Krishna’s decision to establish a new capital was a direct response to a persistent military threat. After slaying his tyrannical uncle, Kamsa, the king of Mathura, Krishna and his Yadava clan faced the relentless wrath of Jarasandha, Kamsa’s powerful father-in-law and the king of Magadha.¹ To spare the citizens of Mathura from continuous warfare and to secure the future of his people, Krishna resolved to move his kingdom to a more defensible location on India’s western coast.⁴ This act was not one of defeat, but of profound foresight—a grand strategic relocation designed to establish a new, unassailable centre of power.

A City Born from the Sea

The chosen site was an ancient, storied piece of land known as Kushasthali, located at the confluence of the Gomti River and the Arabian Sea.⁴ The legend holds that Krishna approached Samudra, the ocean god, and requested that he recede to grant 12 yojans (approximately 96 square kilometres) of land for the construction of his new city.¹⁴ The ocean god obliged, and from the waves emerged the foundation for a new kingdom.⁷ This divine transaction is a cornerstone of Dwarka’s mythos, symbolising a city born from a covenant between the divine and the forces of nature.

Vishvakarma’s Masterpiece

With the land secured, Krishna called upon Vishvakarma, the celestial architect of the gods, to design and build the city.¹ The descriptions of this city, often called “Suvarna Dwarka” (Golden Dwarka), in the Bhagavata Purana, Harivamsa, and Mahabharata are breathtaking in their opulence and detail. It was a metropolis of unparalleled splendour, a testament to divine imagination and engineering.

The texts speak of a meticulously planned city, “squared like a chess board,” with a well-laid-out system of grand boulevards, roads, intersections, and marketplaces.⁷ It boasted 900,000 royal palaces, all constructed with crystal and silver and splendorously decorated with huge emeralds.⁴ Inside these palaces, furnishings were bedecked with gold, ivory, and precious jewels, while coral pillars supported walls studded with sapphires.⁷ The city was filled with lush parks, pleasure gardens, and lakes crowded with blooming lotuses, resounding with the calls of swans and cranes.⁷

Crucially, Dwarka was conceived as an impregnable fortress. It was encircled by a massive boundary wall, described as being 96 miles long, and was heavily fortified, making it accessible only by ship.¹ This design corresponds to the concept of a Vaari-Durg, or water fort, a strategic marvel protected by the sea.¹⁹ To complete this divine undertaking, Krishna is said to have used his power of yogamaya to transport the sleeping citizens of Mathura overnight, so that they awoke to find themselves safe in their magnificent new home.¹⁴

The mythological account of Dwarka’s founding is more than a simple tale of divine power. It functions as a sophisticated political and philosophical blueprint for an ideal kingdom. The narrative establishes Krishna’s legitimacy as a king not through conquest alone, but through divine sanction, strategic genius, and a commitment to protecting his people. The city’s perfect planning, immense wealth, and formidable defences reflect ancient Indian ideals of a capital city as a mirror of its ruler’s virtue and a symbol of a golden age of righteous governance.

When the Ocean Reclaimed its Own

Just as its creation was divinely ordained, Dwarka’s demise was tied to a cosmic shift. The sacred texts narrate that the city’s fate was inextricably linked to the departure of Lord Krishna from the mortal realm after a life of 125 years.¹ This event marked the end of the Dvapara Yuga (the third age of the world) and heralded the beginning of the current, more turbulent era, the Kali Yuga.³

Krishna had forewarned his people of the impending doom. Following his departure, the Yadava clan, once united under his leadership, became consumed by internal strife and vices, ultimately destroying themselves in a fratricidal conflict at Prabhas, near modern-day Somnath.¹¹ The Mahabharata, in its Mausala Parva, provides a poignant and terrifying eyewitness account of the city’s final moments through the eyes of the Pandava prince Arjuna. He describes how the ocean, which had once graciously receded, turned violent. The sea, “which had been beating against the shores, suddenly broke the boundary that was imposed on it by nature”.⁷

Arjuna watched in horror as the waves rushed into the city, coursing through the beautiful streets and submerging the magnificent palaces one by one. In a matter of moments, the glorious capital was gone, swallowed by the placid-looking sea, leaving behind nothing but a name and a memory.⁷ Legends whisper a poignant detail amidst the cataclysm: while the entire city was reclaimed by the ocean, Lord Krishna’s personal palace was mysteriously spared by the waves.⁴

Echoes from the Deep: The Scientific Quest for Krishna’s Kingdom

For centuries, the story of a golden city swallowed by the sea was relegated to the realm of folklore and religious metaphor. However, in the 20th century, a new chapter in Dwarka’s story began, one written not by poets but by scientists and archaeologists determined to find physical proof of the legendary kingdom.

Searching the Depths for a Legendary Past

The modern search for Dwarka began with land-based excavations in 1963, but it was the pioneering work of the renowned archaeologist Dr. S.R. Rao and the Marine Archaeology Unit of the National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) that brought the quest into the depths of the Arabian Sea.³ From 1983 to 1992, Dr. Rao led a series of extensive underwater explorations off the coasts of modern Dwarka and the nearby island of Bet Dwarka, driven by the conviction that the ancient texts were a form of historical record.¹⁰ This marked a significant moment where sacred literature provided a “treasure map” for scientific inquiry.

Unveiling a Sunken World

Using techniques such as SCUBA diving, side-scan sonar, and airlift operations to clear sediment from the seabed, the teams made a series of remarkable discoveries in water depths ranging from 3 to 12 meters.²¹ The findings provided tantalising physical echoes of the city described in the epics:

• Fortifications and Structures: Divers discovered and documented a range of submerged stone structures, including what appeared to be fortified foundations, well-laid walls, pillars, and fort bastions.¹⁰ The construction utilised dressed stone blocks, some L-shaped and featuring provisions for dowels, indicating sophisticated masonry techniques.²² These remnants of a planned settlement strongly aligned with the textual descriptions of a fortified city.
• Evidence of a Thriving Port: Perhaps the most conclusive evidence of ancient activity was the recovery of a large number of stone anchors. These were of various types—triangular, prismatic, grapnel, and ring-stone—and sizes, with some weighing over 500 kg.¹⁹ The typology of these anchors was crucial; some were similar to those used in Syria and Cyprus during the Bronze Age (circa 1500 BCE), suggesting that Dwarka was a major port engaged in robust maritime trade with distant lands.³
• Significant Artifacts: A trove of smaller but equally important artifacts was recovered, providing tangible links to ancient cultures. These included a Late Indus-style seal made from a conch shell depicting a three-headed animal (bull, unicorn, and goat), pottery inscribed with characters from a transitional phase between the Indus script and the later Brahmi script, copper coins, and chert blades.¹⁹

The Dating Conundrum

While the existence of a submerged settlement is now widely accepted, its precise age remains a subject of intense debate and is central to its connection with the Mahabharata.

• Dr. S.R. Rao and his team, based on the typology of artifacts like the Lustrous Red Ware pottery and the three-holed anchors, as well as thermoluminescence dating of pottery which yielded a date of 3,528 years before present (c. 1500 BCE), argued that the ruins were indeed that of Krishna’s Dwarka.²¹
• Other archaeologists and historians take a more conservative view, suggesting that while the site was clearly an important ancient port, the visible structures may date to a later, medieval period.³
• Adding to the complexity, more sensational claims have emerged from carbon dating of certain artifacts, such as a piece of wood, suggesting dates as ancient as 7500 BCE or 9,500 years ago.²⁹ These dates, if substantiated for the entire site, would radically alter mainstream historical timelines of urban civilisation in India, but are highly contested, as dating a single organic object does not date an entire stone settlement.³¹

The archaeological exploration of Dwarka thus reveals a unique and sometimes tense relationship between religious tradition and scientific investigation. The sacred epics provided the initial impetus and geographical clues for the search. The scientific findings, in turn, were embraced by many as a validation of these ancient narratives. This created a feedback loop where faith fueled the scientific quest, and the results of that quest were used to reinforce the historicity of faith. This dynamic is not merely academic; it has profound cultural and political resonance in modern India, as seen in high-profile events like Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s underwater pilgrimage to the site in 2024, which powerfully fused scientific exploration with national and religious identity.²⁰

The following table summarises the key archaeological work that has shaped our understanding of this enigmatic site.

The Living Legacy: A Tour of Sacred Dwarka

While the search for the ancient city continues beneath the waves, modern Dwarka stands as a vibrant testament to an unbroken chain of faith. It is a city dotted with sacred sites, each with its own story, drawing pilgrims into the living narrative of Lord Krishna.

The Dwarkadhish Temple: The Abode of the King of Dwarka

At the heart of the city stands the magnificent Dwarkadhish Temple, also known as the Jagat Mandir (Universal Shrine).³⁵

• History and Legend: Tradition holds that the original temple was built over 2,500 years ago by Krishna’s great-grandson, Vajranabha, on the very site of Krishna’s personal residence, Hari-Griha.³⁵ The current structure, a grand edifice of limestone and sand, was largely built in the 15th-16th century in the Māru-Gurjara (or Chalukya) style, following the destruction of an earlier temple by Mahmud Begada in 1473.³⁶
• Architectural Grandeur: The temple is an architectural marvel, a five-story main shrine supported by 72 intricately carved pillars.³⁵ Its towering spire, or shikhara, rises to a height of 78.3 meters, dominating the city’s skyline.³⁵
• Sacred Gateways and Steps: Pilgrims enter through the north gate, the Moksha Dwar (Gate to Liberation), and exit through the south gate, the Swarg Dwar (Gate to Heaven).³⁵ The Swarg Dwar leads to a flight of 56 steps that descend to the sacred Gomti River, with each step said to symbolise one of the 56 Yadava kings who ruled Dwarka.³⁶
• Rituals and Deities: The sanctum houses the main deity of Dwarkadhish, a four-armed form of Krishna carved from gleaming black stone.³⁵ Surrounding shrines are dedicated to other key figures from his life, including his brother Balarama, his sister Subhadra, his parents Vasudeva and Devaki, and his queen Rukmini.³⁵ A unique and vital ritual is the changing of the temple’s flag, or dhvaja. This 52-yard-long flag, bearing symbols of the sun and moon to signify Krishna’s eternal presence, is changed five times a day in a special ceremony.⁵

Bet Dwarka: An Island of Intimacy and Antiquity

A short ferry ride from the port of Okha lies Bet Dwarka, an island believed to have been the personal residence of Lord Krishna and his queens.⁴ Known also as Shankhodhar, this island is considered the more intimate counterpart to the grand administrative capital on the mainland.⁴¹

• Krishna’s Personal Abode: The island’s name, ‘Bet’, means ‘gift’, and is linked to a beloved story where Krishna’s impoverished childhood friend, Sudama, presented him with a humble gift of puffed rice, receiving immense blessings in return.⁴⁰ The main temple on the island, dedicated to Krishna, is credited to the Vaishnava saint Guru Vallabhacharya.⁴⁰ In a tribute to the story of Sudama, rice is still offered as the primary
  prasad (consecrated food) to the deity here.⁴³
• Archaeological and Modern Significance: Bet Dwarka is also a significant archaeological site, with excavations revealing artifacts from the Harappan era, underscoring the region’s ancient history.⁴⁰ In 2024, the island’s accessibility was transformed with the inauguration of the Sudarshan Setu, India’s longest cable-stayed bridge, connecting it directly to the mainland at Okha.⁴⁰

Nageshwar Jyotirlinga: The Sanctum of the Serpent Lord

Located on the route between Dwarka and Bet Dwarka, the Nageshwar Temple holds immense significance as one of the 12 sacred Jyotirlingas—self-manifested representations of Lord Shiva as a column of light.⁴⁴ Its presence makes the Dwarka region a rare and powerful pilgrimage site where two of Hinduism’s major traditions, Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu/Krishna) and Shaivism (worship of Shiva), converge.⁸

• The Legend of Darukavana: The Shiva Purana narrates the legend of the temple’s origin in the ancient Darukavana forest. It is here that Lord Shiva vanquished the demon Daruka and promised to reside eternally in the form of a jyotirlinga named Nageshwar, or ‘Lord of Serpents’, to protect his devotees.⁴⁴
• Iconography: The temple complex is immediately recognisable by its iconic 25-meter (approximately 80-foot) tall statue of a seated Lord Shiva in a meditative posture, a serene and powerful landmark.⁴⁴ The actual jyotirlinga is housed within an underground sanctum, drawing thousands of pilgrims annually.⁴⁴

The Solitude of Rukmini Devi: A Legend of Love and a Curse

A short distance of about 2 km outside the main city lies the beautiful and poignant Rukmini Devi Temple, dedicated to Krishna’s chief queen.⁴⁷ Its separate location is explained by a famous legend.

• The Curse of Durvasa: The story tells of a time when the short-tempered sage Durvasa asked Krishna and Rukmini to pull his chariot.⁴⁷ On the way, Rukmini grew thirsty, and Krishna struck the ground with his toe, bringing forth the holy Ganges river for her to drink. Rukmini quenched her thirst but forgot to first offer water to the sage. Feeling insulted, Durvasa cursed her to be separated from her husband for 12 years.⁴⁷ The temple is believed to stand on the very spot where Rukmini performed penance to overcome the curse.⁴⁷
• Architectural Beauty: The 12th-century temple is a masterpiece of carving, its exterior walls richly decorated with sculptures of gods, goddesses, and panels depicting human figures (naratharas) and elephants (gajatharas).⁴⁷ It is a deeply held belief among pilgrims that a journey to Dwarka is not complete without paying respects at the shrine of its queen.⁴⁷

A Pillar of Indian Faith: Dwarka and the Char Dham Yatra

Dwarka’s significance transcends its local legends, occupying a paramount position in the sacred geography of India as one of the four Char Dham.⁵⁰ This pilgrimage circuit, conceptualised by the great 8th-century philosopher and theologian Adi Shankaracharya, maps a spiritual journey to the four cardinal points of the subcontinent.⁵

Dwarka stands as the western bastion, or pitha, of this circuit, alongside Badrinath in the north, Puri in the east, and Rameswaram in the south.⁵ For countless devotees, the yatra (pilgrimage) is a life’s ambition, a journey believed to wash away sins and ultimately grant moksha—liberation from the endless cycle of birth and death.⁵⁰ The traditional pilgrimage path proceeds clockwise, often culminating at Dwarka, whose ancient name “Mokshapuri” directly reflects this spiritual promise.⁶

Further cementing its unparalleled status, Dwarka holds a dual distinction. It is not only one of the four Char Dham but also one of the Sapta Puri, the seven most ancient and sacred cities of Hinduism mentioned in the scriptures, a list that includes Ayodhya, Mathura, and Kashi.⁵ This unique position places Dwarka at the very core of the Hindu faith and identity.

The Pulse of Devotion: Festivals, Culture, and Cuisine

The spiritual energy of Dwarka is most palpable during its vibrant festivals, when the city’s ancient traditions come to life. The local culture is deeply intertwined with devotion to Lord Krishna, shaping everything from daily rituals to the local cuisine.

Janmashtami: The Birth of a God

As the legendary capital of Lord Krishna, Dwarka is the epicentre of Janmashtami celebrations, marking his birth.⁵⁴ The entire city transforms, but the festivities revolve around the Dwarkadhish Temple, which is magnificently decorated with flowers and countless lights.⁵⁵ The day follows the

Nitya Kram, or daily routine, of the Lord, but with heightened splendor.⁵⁷

• The morning begins with the Mangla Aarti, after which the idol is given a sacred ceremonial bath, or Abhishek, with Panchamrit—a mixture of milk, ghee, honey, curd, and sugar.³⁹ This is a rare occasion when devotees are allowed to witness the bathing ritual.⁵⁸
• Following the bath, the deity is adorned (Shringar) in fine silk garments and opulent jewellery made of gold, diamonds, and other precious stones.³⁹ Throughout the day, various bhog (food offerings) are made to the Lord, and the temple resonates with the continuous singing of bhajans (devotional songs).⁵⁷
• The celebration reaches its crescendo at midnight, the exact time of Krishna’s birth. The temple erupts in a joyous uproar as priests perform the Janm-Utsav Aarti and devotees chant “Nand Gher Anand Bhayo, Jai Kanhaiya Lal Ki” (“Joy in the house of Nanda, victory to Lord Kanhaiya!”), welcoming their beloved deity into the world.⁵⁵

Local Culture and Traditions

The culture of Dwarka is defined by the simple, devout, and traditional nature of its people.⁵⁹ Gujarati is the primary language spoken, though Hindi is also widely understood.⁵³ The region is a hub for traditional arts and crafts, most notably the intricate Bandhani tie-dye fabrics and Patan Patola silk sarees.⁵⁴ Beyond Janmashtami, the city celebrates other Hindu festivals like Holi and Diwali with great fervour.⁵⁹ A particularly powerful display of local faith is the Fuldol festival, during which members of the shepherd community undertake an arduous pilgrimage on foot from across Gujarat to celebrate Holi with their deity in Dwarka.⁶⁰

A Taste of Dwarka: The Pilgrim’s Plate

As a preeminent holy city, the cuisine of Dwarka is strictly vegetarian, reflecting the principles of the faith and offering a delightful array of flavours that are emblematic of Gujarati culinary traditions.⁵⁴

• The Gujarati Thali: The most authentic dining experience is the Gujarati thali, a wholesome platter that presents a perfect balance of sweet, salty, and spicy flavours. A typical thali includes dal (lentils), kadhi (a sweet and sour yogurt-based curry), various shaak (seasonal vegetable preparations), roti (flatbread), rice, pickles, and sweets.⁶²
• Iconic Snacks and Street Food: The streets of Dwarka offer a feast for the senses. Popular snacks include the fluffy, steamed Khaman Dhokla; the classic breakfast combination of crispy Fafda with sweet, syrupy Jalebi; the crunchy, deep-fried gram flour sticks known as Gathiya; and Dabeli, a sweet and spicy potato mixture stuffed into a soft bun.⁶²
• Local Specialties: For a taste of the regional Kathiawadi cuisine, one must try dishes like Bajri no Rotlo (a hearty millet flatbread) and Sev Tameta nu Shaak (a tangy tomato curry garnished with crispy chickpea flour noodles).⁶⁴

Conclusion: Where Past and Present Converge

Dwarka remains a city of unparalleled significance, a place that exists simultaneously in a mythological past, an archaeological present, and a spiritual future. It is a testament to the enduring power of faith and the deep-rooted civilizational memory of India. The dialogue between the sacred descriptions of a golden city and the scientific discoveries of submerged stone structures in the Arabian Sea is ongoing and profound. For millions of believers, the archaeological findings are not a prerequisite for faith but a fascinating affirmation of it—a sign that the stories that have shaped their spiritual landscape for millennia may be rooted in a tangible reality.⁴

Dwarka is more than just a destination; it is the living embodiment of its name. It remains a gateway—a portal through which the past speaks to the present, where myth and history meet the tide, and where the human quest for connection with the divine continues, as ceaseless as the ocean waves that lap its sacred shores.

Disclaimer

This article is a comprehensive synthesis of information drawn from mythological texts, religious traditions, archaeological reports, and cultural and travel-related sources. The historical and archaeological details, particularly concerning the dating of submerged artifacts and structures, are based on available research, which is ongoing and subject to academic debate. Interpretations and timelines may vary among historians, archaeologists, and other experts. The content related to religious beliefs and legends is presented to reflect their cultural and spiritual significance to the Hindu faith and is not asserted as historical fact.

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